For citation:
Kim Phat, N., Ouk, S., Uozumi, Y., and Ueki, T. (1999) Analysis of forest management problems in Cambodia – a case study of F company. Journal of Forest Planning 5, 65-71
ABSTRACT
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A fast growing population and the need for food and forest products coupled with the great demand for wood and rapid economic development in the developing world have brought sustainable forest management under continuous uncertainty. Deforestation in the developing world has been relatively high. But recently, it has been more widely recognized that over-exploitation of forest products and non-forest products is prejudicing the sustainability of the world’s forests. Cambodia has been chosen as a case study to test this hypothesis regarding sustainable forest management.
There are two main types of forests in Cambodia, namely dryland and edaphic forests, covering a total area of 10.59 million ha or 58% of the total land area. It had been reduced from 12.32 million ha in 1973 as a result of wars and political instability over the last 25 years. Against a background of government instability, great domestic and foreign demands for wood in recent years have resulted in Cambodia’s forests being over-exploited. To prove this, a selective 25-year felling cycle system used by F Company was analyzed with the aid of various statistical tools. The analysis shows that although the growing stock of F’s evergreen forest is as low as 82 m3/ha due to illegal logging, the company has exploited 7 m3/ha or 9% of the total stock. This was 6 percentage points higher than the sustainable cutting rate of Cambodia’s evergreen forest. This supports the hypothesis of over-exploitation. The result also shows that there is still a large number of residual trees with diameter less than 45 cm, which are available for extracting over the next 25 years if they are properly managed. Strong enforcement mechanisms for forest monitoring and control are needed to stop illegal logging, to prevent over-exploitation and to manage the residual trees for long-term availability of forest resources.
Keyword: Cambodia, forest management, selective felling, tree classification
INTRODUCTION
Tropical forests have been over-exploited to meet the great demands of fast growing population and rapid economic development in recent years. This phenomenon has put sustainable forest management (SFM) in tropical areas under uncertainty. Foreseeing the danger to the world’s forests, the world’s forestry leaders met during the Earth Summit in 1992, and pledged to promote and attain SFM. Since then, SFM has regained widespread support as a means of ensuring long-term perpetual supply of wood, and other forest products and services. Several management systems have been implemented to manage the forests, but the best-known systems are clear and selective cutting.
The aim of this paper is to analyze the underlying problems of forest management and provide a framework for SFM in Cambodia. The authors have found it difficult to find the relevant forestry documents for such a study, due to the fact that forestry documents were virtually all burned during the Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1978). Based on reports of the Department of Forestry and Wildlife (DFW) of Cambodia, the forest management of F Company was analyzed with the aid of various statistical tools.
CAMBODIA – THE COUNTRY AND ITS FORESTS
Covering a total land area of 18 million ha, Cambodia is bordered by Thailand to the north-west, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the south-east and the Gulf of Thailand to the south-west. In 1997, Cambodia had a total population of 10.9 million with an annual growth rate of 2.8%.
Forests covered a total area of 10.59 million ha or 58% of the total land area in 1997 (DFW, 1997). All forests in Cambodia are owned by the national government. However, a forest concession system was introduced to Cambodia in early 1991. By 1997, the government had entered into 28 agreements affecting 6.33 million ha (Global Witness, 1998) of total forest area, of which over 3 million ha were well-stocked commercially operable forests. Two forest types have been recognized in Cambodia – dryland (96%) and edaphic (4%) forests. Dryland forests include evergreen, mixed, deciduous, and secondary forests, while edaphic forests include flooded and mangrove forests. Separate management systems are applied to these forests. Two types of selective cutting system are used in Cambodia: the long system with a 25-30 year cycle, and the short, 12-15 year cycle (OUK, 1997). These systems had been adopted in Cambodia prior to 1970, during times of political stability. The long system is used to manage evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, while the short system is used to manage deciduous forests.
The most up-to-date forest resource information for Cambodia is the 1994 Land Cover Atlas prepared by the Mekong Secretariat, Forest Register 1995 by JAFTA (Japan Forest Technical Association) and the unpublished forest cover map produced by DFW in 1997. Although more recent changes may have occurred and been reported, especially along the borders with Thailand and Vietnam, no data are available to evaluate these reports. The total forest area of 11.3 million ha is divided into 4.8 million ha of evergreen forest, 4.3 million ha of deciduous forest, 1 million ha of mixed forest, 0.5 million ha of secondary forest and 0.7 million ha of edaphic forests (Table1).
HISTORY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT IN CAMBODIA
On the basis of inscriptions on ancient sculptures found in Cambodia, it is believed that forest institutions existed in Cambodia before the year 639, headed by Khlong Meprey (forest chief). The state of Cambodia has existed since prehistorical times. Cambodians built a famous temple known as Angkor Wat between the 9th and 11th centuries. Subsequently, Cambodia was colonised by France from 1863 to 1953, during which period the Ministry of Forests was established in 1898 (DFW, 1985). The first forest code of practices was established in 1903, and was subsequently revised in 1913, 1916, 1921 and 1930 to make it more adaptable to different locations. The area of forest increased from 10 million ha in 1898 to 13.32 million ha in 1965 (KIMPHAT et al, 1998). However, it declined to 12.71 million ha in 1973 as a result of the Vietnam War (1965-1975). Domestic log production increased from 108,900 m3 in 1931 to 363,100 m3 in 1969, but dropped to 63,900 m3 in 1970, the year when civil war started in Cambodia (Fig. 1).
Forest cover declined further from 12.71 million ha in 1973 to 10.59 million ha in 1997 – a loss of more than two million ha. The underlying causes of deforestation in Cambodia include war (Vietnam War 1965-1975, Khmer Rouge Regime 1975-1978, Communism Regime 1979-1989), over-exploitation since 1970 as a result of these wars and political instability, fast growing population, illegal logging and unworkable public administration (KIMPHAT et al, 1999).
TREE CLASSIFICATION
Based on durability and potential utilization, tree species are economically classified into 4 grades (Decree No. 050) – Luxury, Grades I, II and III. In addition there are a number of tree species which have been temporarily classified into another class pending evaluation of their potential uses (Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, 1985).
Luxury Grade: The wood is very durable and is used for long-term construction material. In the past and present, villagers have been using these trees for construction of houses, especially for newly married families. Unregulated cutting has caused the gradual loss of some species in this grade. Therefore, extraction of trees in this grade is strictly prohibited.
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Grade I and Grade II: The wood is durable. These grades are dominated by Dipterocarp trees. They are subject to commercial exploitation.
Grade III: The trees are non-commercial. Trees in this grade are mainly used for fuelwood.
Other: The potential utilization of these tree species has not yet been studied.
CAMBODIA’S SILVICULTURAL TREATMENT SYSTEM
Selective Cutting Cycle of 25-30 Years
This system or “Under Selective Management System” is applied mainly to dense evergreen and semi-evergreen forest, which are dominated by Dipterocarp species. The average growing stock of all trees with diameter greater than 10 cm at breast height in Cambodia’s evergreen forest is 230 m3/ha with a mean growth rate of 0.33 m3/ha/year (ASHWEL, 1993) (Table 2). The forest harvesting regime is planned on the basis of pre-felling inventory data. Only 30% of the growing stock (of all merchantable trees) that fall within the allowable diameter limits (DBH≥45 cm) may be extracted (Decree No. 049). The remaining 70% of stands are left as mother trees, which will, in turn, produce seeds and seedlings for natural regeneration. These residual trees function also as shelter for young trees, and they will be extracted in the next felling cycle. This old management system is being put to use in the management of all forest concessions in Cambodia.
Note: (a) in Table 2 and Table 3 derived from equation (1) below:
s = [(1+P)L-1] x 100/(1+P)L (1)
where,
s: selective cutting rate as percentage of growing stock
L: cutting cycle in years
P: annual growth rate as percentage of growing stock
Selective Cutting Cycle of 12-15 Years
This system is applied to dry deciduous forests with the major deciduous Dipterocarp species. Dipterocarpus obtusifolius (Tbeng), Dipt. intricatus (Trach), Dipt. tuberculatus (Khlong), Shorea obtusa (Pchek) and Terminalia tomentosa (Chlik) of Combretaceae are the dominant species in this forest type. The average growing stock is 60 m3/ha with an average growth rate of 0.17 m3/ha/year (Table 3). This forest type usually generates by coppice. The management objective is to extract fuelwood and poles for local needs. Its felling cycle is set between 12 and 15 years. Because of political instability further information is unobtainable.
FOREST MANAGEMENT OF F COMPANY
Location and forest area
F Company was granted two forest concessions in 1995, one of which located in the coastal area (DFW, 1996). This concession has been divided into 25 annual coupes. The management of coupe No.1 has been analyzed. This coupe is covered mainly by evergreen forest. It has been under anarchic logging for 4 years (1991-1995).
Inventory system and growing stock
The company conducted a pre-harvesting inventory on its annual harvesting coupe, which covers a total area of more than 15,000 ha. Inventory intensity was 5% of the total coupe area or approximately 850 sample plots. All plots were 100 m x 100 m in size, systematically chosen on a rectangular basis of 0.5 km on the base line and 0.4 km on the transect line.
The result of the pre-felling inventory indicates that the volume of all trees with diameter greater than 10 cm is 82 m3/ha on average – approximately one-third that of virgin evergreen forest which averages 230 m3/ha, with a density of 298 trees/ha. This clearly shows that this coupe has been and is being over-exploited. The detailed data shows that Luxury Grade trees have an average density of 11 trees/ha and volume of 1.8 m3/ha, compared to 23 trees/ha and 4.8 m3/ha for Grade I (Table 4). Table 4 also shows that the remaining trees are mostly small in diameter and volume.
Over-exploitation
One of the most crucial considerations for forest management and investment is sustainable cutting intensity or allowable cut. For a level of harvest forest to be sustainable, each harvest must be limited to the accumulated growth since the last harvest and must leave the stand in a condition to support a resumption of growth at least at the same rate. In the selective cutting systems applied in Cambodian forests, harvesting intensity is expressed in terms of percentage of the standing merchantable volume to be removed. Forest growth in Cambodia has been estimated to be in the order of only 0.3 m3/ha/year for mixed and evergreen forests. Applied to a cutting cycle of 25 years (current management system), this has been used to establish a harvest limit of 7.5 m3/ha or approximately 30% of total merchantable volume.
According to Table 4, the total volume of all trees greater than 45 cm DBH is 32.52 m3/ha (derived from 16.83+15.69). Because trees of Luxury Grade are not included in harvest, and trees in Grade III and Other are not subject to cutting due to their unmarketability, only trees of Grades I and II (18.04 m3) can be commercially logged (Table 4). Over the inventoried area of 850 ha, about 6,243.69 m3 of 8 merchantable tree species with diameter greater than 45 cm have been recorded and are to be extracted. On the basis of the silvicultural treatment principle, only 30% of the growing stock of merchantable trees that fall within the diameter limit for harvesting is available for harvest. Thus, the volume (allowable cut) to be extracted should be 5.41 m3/ha (derived from 0.63+0.51+7.76+9.14 multiplied by 0.3, of Table 4). F company proposed to cut 30% of merchantable trees with DBH greater than 45 cm and 50% of trees with diameter greater than 59 cm, so the harvest volume would be increased to 7.34 m3/ha (derived from 2.52+4.82 of Table 5).
Using equation (1) above, and based on Table 4, F’s mean growing stock is 82.13 m3/ha, and F’s actual cut on a 25-year cutting cycle is 7.34 m3/ha or 8.94% of the total growing stock. This rate is 5.5 percentage points higher than the average sustainable cutting rate of Cambodia’s evergreen forest (Fig. 2). This practice is unacceptable and will cause forest degradation. Enrichment planting is required.
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Forest management in Cambodia is strongly influenced by regional dynamics of wood demand and supply. Rapid deforestation in major wood exporting countries in south east Asia, such as Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam and Malaysia has forced Cambodia to move from being previously a minor wood exporter to becoming a major wood exporter to the region in recent years. Shortage of human resources, financial constraints, and government instability, especially along the borders with Thailand and Vietnam, has encouraged illegal loggers from inside and outside the countries to over-exploit forests without concern for the future of Cambodian people, whose economic development depends mainly on forest resources. The over-exploitation (5.04%) of forest products being practiced by F Company causes the forest degradation, and if the remaining forest is not properly protected and managed, deforestation is likely to occur. Until recently, professional foresters have been concerned with the management of forests for the sustained yield of wood production alone. While based on sustainability principles, it is not a long-term sustainability. Thus, forest managers should formulate appropriate methodological guidelines for assessing long-term sustainability. Besides the exploitation of commercial tree species, the company should also extract the trees of the third and other grades for fuelwood production as done prior to 1970 (DFW, 1985), because approximately 92% of Cambodian population still depend mainly on fuelwood for daily cooking energy and warmth. This practice would reduce the clearing of wood inside forest concessions by nearby villagers for fuelwood.
The results of this study indicate that the number of residual trees with diameter less than 45 cm in all grades in the forest remains high (Fig. 3). Under legal management this forest can provide more wood and environmental services for present and future needs. The Luxury Grade, very distinct species, and Grade I – the commercial species – remain a very small proportion of the remaining trees, which makes enrichment planting necessary.
The study concluded that over a period of 25-30 years, the trees with diameter less than 40 cm should reach minimum diameter for harvesting. Thus the recommendation is that all trees with diameter greater than 40 cm can be extracted as long as they meet the silvicultural guidelines. While further study of growth rates of specific forest areas is strongly recommended, more data collection, storage and analysis is needed to evaluate whether or not the present forest management practices are sustainable.
While cooperation with neighboring countries is required, strong enforcement mechanisms for current forest monitoring and control are needed to stop illegal logging, to prevent over-exploitation of forest products and to properly manage the remaining trees. The participation of local, national and international communities is required to provide financial and technical assistance the management of Cambodia’s forests on a sustainable basis.
Above all, while establishing a national forest planning system, the government should provide a long-term commitment to research infrastructure in terms of fieldwork facilitation, documents and technical and financial assistance. To effectively manage the forest on a sustainable basis, forest certification schemes such as FSC, and ISO 9000 and 14001 should be introduced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to thank Mr. Dan Howell, of Howell It Is, and his wife for editing our English.
LITERATURE CITED
ASHWEL, D., (1993) : Aspects of management of biological diversity in Cambodia. Paper presented at seminar on Cambodia’s forest resources 15-17 July, 1993. Report of UNTAC (United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia), Phnom Penh, 1-11
Department of Forestry and Wildlife (DFW), (1985) : History of forestry management in Cambodia. DFW 1985, Phnom Penh, 129pp (in Khmer)
DFW, (1996) : Forest operation plan of F Company. DFW, Phnom Penh, 51pp (in Khmer)
DFW, (1997) : Forest resource assessment in Cambodia. DFW’s forestry report, Phnom Penh: 1-18
Global Witness (1998) : Going places. Cambodia’s future on the move. A briefing document of Global Witness, London, 77pp
KIMPHAT N., and UOZUMI Y., (1998) : Present status and problems of Cambodia’s forests. Chubu Forestry Research 46: 213-216 (in Japanese)
KIMPHAT N., OUK S., UOZUMI Y., and UEKI T., (1999) : An outline of the causes of deforestation in Cambodia. Transactions of Japanese Forestry Society. No. 109: 142-146.
Decree No. 49 (1986) : Classification of tree species and diameter limits for harvesting. Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh: 1-4 (in Khmer)
Decree No. 50 (1986): Tree species classification and diameter limits for harvest. Government of Cambodia, Phnom Penh: 1-4 (in Khmer)
Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry (MAFF), (1985): Decision on tree classification and diameter limits for harvesting. Decision No. 50, on forest harvesting. MAFF, 1985, Phnom Penh, 1-4 (in Khmer)
OUK, S., (1997) The enhancement of sustainable forest management in Cambodia. Report presented at the 22nd session of International Tropical Timber Council (ITTC) and associated committees in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, May 1997. DFW, Phnom Penh: 1-13
The World Bank, UNDP and FAO, (1996) : Cambodian forest policy assessment. The World Bank, Phnom Penh, 60pp.
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